Harlequins spend their winters along North American coasts and come inland to mountain streams with fast flowing water in order to breed. They are often spotted on the Kenai and Russian Rivers in spring through early summer. In Denali National Park these birds may be seen at lower Caribou Creek, Savage River, Igloo Creek, and Stony Creek. Male Harlequins desert the female at the start of incubation, usually by early to mid July. The females stay through mid to late August to raise their young. Harlequins feed on crustaceans, mollusks, aquatic insects, and fish. They are categorized as “ducks that dive”, or sea ducks (see Dabblers vs. Divers p.75). Like Dippers, they walk on the bottom of swift streams when foraging, searching among rocks.
Common Merganser
Common Mergansers are frequently seen the Kenai River and other surrounding rivers, streams, and lakes. They are also categorized as “ducks that dive”, or sea ducks (see Dabblers vs. Divers, p. 75), diving after fish and aquatic invertebrates, Common Mergansers usually nest in the cavities of deciduous trees, But they may also nest in earthen banks or rock crevices, beneath boulders, under shrubs, in root hollows, or occasionally abandoned nests. In areas where nest sites are limited, egg dumping occurs (when females lay eggs in different nests form their own), which results in clutch sizes of thirteen or more eggs. Young remain in nest only 24-48 hours. Deserted an /or lost young will join another female-tended brood. Male Common Mergansers leave the breeding area after the onset of incubation, usually departing the Kenai River Valley by early July.
Red-breasted Merganser
Red-breasted Mergansers also inhabit the Kenai River Valley during the summer months, and they can be difficult to distinguish form Common Mergansers. The male Red-breasted Merganser can be distinguished from the male Common Merganser by the red and white streaked breast and green feathers on its head, which stick up in a crest (as opposed to the male Common Merganser which has a green head, but no crest). The female Red-breasted Merganser has paler coloration in the head and neck; the chin and for neck are white. Red-breasted Mergansers breed in forested habitats near lakes, swamps, marshes, and estuaries; they winter alon
g southern coasts down to Mexico. Their nests are found in tree cavities near water and rarely in hollow logs. The male Red-breasted Mergansers leave breeding areas at the onset of incubation. Females are known to lay eggs in each others’ nests, resulting in dump nests with up to 36 eggs. Abandoned or lost young do not combine with other broods, unlike other species of Mergansers. These birds are also known as “ducks that dive”, or sea ducks. They dive after fish and aquatic invertebrates, and are known to cooperatively hunt by herding fish into shallow water.
Black Oystercatcher
Black Oystercatchers are seen in Kenai Fjords National Park, along rocky coasts and islands. They feed on a variety of marine invertebrates especially mussels, worms, and echinoderms; they also eat fish, crustaceans, barnacles, and limpets. They are very good swimmers and divers. They are monogamous with long-term pair bonds, and the pair defends their feeding territories year-round. Both the male and female take part in nest building, incubation, and caring for young. Ravens are primary predators of the eggs. The young are dependant upon parents for extended periods of time.
American Golden Plover (also known as Lesser Golden Plover)
These remarkable birds can be seen in Denali National Park, and have been seen I the following locations within the park: Primrose Ridge, upper Highway Pass, Little Stony Creek flats below Stony Hill, and Stony Hill. Lesser Golden Plovers perform an amazing loop migration, first assembling in Labrador for an over flight to Brazil and then to the Argentine pampas wintering grounds. In spring, they travel through Central America to the Gulf of Mexico, and then up to Mississippi Valley to their tundra breeding grounds. Their nests consist of a shallow scrape on the tundra, which is built by the male. They raise one brood of 3-4 young, both sexes incubate, and the female tends tot eh young when they hatch. They feed on insects, worms, spiders, seeds, and berries. Huge flocks of these birds used to darken they sky, but market hunting (48,000 shot in one day near New Orleans in 1861) reduced their numbers greatly. This species (Pluvialis dominica) was recently separated from another closely related species, the Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva). The Pacific Golden Plover is found on the Seward Peninsula in western Alaska, and has a different migration pattern.
Greater Yellowlegs
These birds are often seen along the Kenai River and at Skilak Lake. There is still much to be learned about their breeding biology. Their diet consists mainly of fish and invertebrates. Greater yellowlegs can be distinguished form Lesser Yellowlegs by their larger size and their slightly upturned bill. These birds are noisy and will vigorously defend their nesting areas. The winter from the southern U.S. to Tierra del Fuego.
Long- Tailed Jaeger
Long-tailed Jaegers can be seen in Denali National Park. Look them at the top of Primrose Ridge, between Savage and Sanctuary Rivers, and from Highway Pass to Thorofare Pass. They are monogamous, and the male and female make a shallow scrape in tundra as a nest. Both parents incubate and care for the brood of 1-2 young. The female does most of brooding and the feeding of the young, while the male does the majority of the hunting and defends their territory. They feed on small mammals, birds, insects, bird eggs, pirated fish (while at sea), and berries. The young are typically fed mammals, birds, insects, and berries; breeding success in dependent on rodent abundance. These birds are pelagic (living in marine waters) in winter, they are usually located off the South American coast from Ecuador to Chile, and in the Atlantic down to Argentina.
Bonaparte’s Gull
These birds are often seen offshore at Skilak Lake where they can be mistaken for Arctic Terns because of similar coloration and flight. Bonaparte’s Gulls have black heads and bills, whereas Arctic Terns have black heads and orange bills; Arctic Terns also have forked tails and thin, pointed wings (high-speed wings), whereas the Bonaparte’s Gull does not possess these characteristics. These birds breed in open coniferous woodland near ponds and lakes. They winter in south to west-central Mexico. They feed on insects, aquatic invertebrates, and fish by diving into water and grounded gleaning for insects. Their breeding biology in not well known.
Herring Gull
Herring Gulls breed in rocky terraces, grassy hummocks on sandy coasts, tundra, lakeside cliffs, islands, and salt marshes. These birds are common on the Kenai Peninsula and they look very similar to Glaucous-winged Gulls. The distinguishing plumage between the two is that the Herring Gull has black primary feathers (the wing tips), whereas the Glaucous-winged Gull has gray to white primaries. Both the male and female take part in nest building, incubation, and caring for the young. Herring Gulls are scavengers, eating anything from garbage to berries, and they are also opportunistic predators of adult birds, eggs, and young of other gulls. They attain adult plumage in their fourth year. During the winter, Herring Gulls are found along lakes, rivers, tidal flats, beaches, garbage dumps, and inshore marine waters.
Mew Gull
Mew Gulls are common on the Kenai Peninsula and in Denali National Park. They can be easily distinguished from other gulls by their small size and their yellow to yellow-green legs. These gulls will scrape out their nests in the highest part of their habitat – on river bars, dry land, marshes, or a shallow cup in the top of a low growing spruce, sump, or piling – and they may also make a floating nest in marshy areas. Mew Gulls are monogamous, and both males and females take part in constructing the nest, incubation, and caring for young. Mew Gulls are omnivorous and feed on everything from insects and carrion to fish and young birds. They are known to drop sea urchins form the air on rocks in order to break them open. These birds attain their adult plumage in three years. Mew Gulls winter in offshore and inshore marine waters, beaches, and tidal flats.
Glaucous- winged Gull
The Glaucous-winged Gull can be seen on the Kenai Peninsula. It is difficult to distinguish form the Herring Gull. The distinguishing characteristic to look for is the coloration of the primary feathers (wing tips). Herring Gulls have black primaries, whereas Glaucous- winged Gulls have gray to white primaries. It is important to keep in mind that these two species interbreed and hybridize in Alaska, and this further complicated identification. TO learn more about hybridization and speciation, read the essay titled “Hybridization,” on p. 201 of the Birder’s Handbook. Glaucous-winged Gulls are monogamous, often re-pairing with the same mate at the same colony in the spring, and both parents take part in raising the young. They attain adult plumage in their fourth year. In winter, these birds can be found in coastal communities, garbage dumps, inshore and offshore marine waters, tidal flats, and beaches.
Arctic Tern
Arctic Terns are commonly seen at Kenai, Tern, and Skilak Lakes, along the Kenai River, Kenai Fjords National Park, Potter’s Marsh, and Denali National Park. These birds migrate to Alaska in the spring from Antarctica, and then return to Antarctica in late July/ early August. – a round trip of approximately 22,000 miles and the longest migration of any bird. This means the Arctic Tern spends much of the year in areas that have nearly 24 hours of daylight. Arctic Terns are pelagic birds (ocean birds), and nest on offshore islands, rocky or grass-covered coasts, tundra, and occasionally along inland lakes and rivers. They conduct conspicuous aerial courtships and courtship feeding on ground (male offers fish to female). Arctic Terns are monogamous (long-term pair bond), and both parents help to construct a shallow nest, incubate, and care for young. They attend their nests 98% of the time and they will vigorously defend them by diving and harassing potential predators (including humans!). Colonial or solitary nesting. They are long-lived species, with a maximum-recorded lifespan of 34 years.
Horned Puffin
These are pelagic birds that are commonly seen in Kenai Fjords National Park. They utilize rocky islands to nest and breed. The male and female use a natural crevice, an old burrow, or construct a new one with a 1-3’ tunnel with an enlarged chamber. Both parents help to incubate and raise a single brood of one chick. Their diet includes fish, marine invertebrates such as squid and mollusks, and even some seaweed. They spend the non-breeding season off the coast of North America.
Arctic Tern
Arctic Terns are commonly seen at Kenai, Tern, and Skilak Lakes, along the Kenai River, Kenai Fjords National Park, Potter’s Marsh, and Denali National Park. These birds migrate to Alaska in the spring from Antarctica, and then return to Antarctica in late July/ early August – a round trip of approximately 22,000 miles and the longest migration of any bird. This means the Arctic Tern spends much of the year in areas that have nearly 24 hours of daylight. Arctic Terns are pelagic birds (ocean birds), and nest on offshore islands, rocky or grass-covered coasts, tundra, and occasionally along inland lakes and rivers. They conduct conspicuous aerial courtships and courtship feeding on ground (male offers fish to female). Arctic Terns are monogamous (long-term pair bond), and both parents help to construct a shallow nest, incubate, and care for young. They attend their nests 98% of the time and they will vigorously defend them by diving and harassing potential predators (including humans!). Colonial or solitary nesting. They are long-lived species, with a maximum-recorded lifespan of 34 years.
Horned Puffin
These are pelagic birds that are commonly seen in Kenai Fjords National Park. They utilize rocky islands to nest and breed. The male and female use a natural crevice, an old burrow, or construct a new one with a 1-3’ tunnel with an enlarged chamber. Both parents help to incubate and raise a single brood of one chick. Their diet includes fish, marine invertebrates such as squid and mollusks, and even some seaweed. They spend the non- breeding season off the coast of North America.
Tufted Puffin
Tufted Puffins are also commonly seen in Kenai Fjords National Park. They can be distinguished form Horned Puffins by the “tufts” of yellow eyeline feathers which occur over their eyes their completely black breasts (the Horned Puffins have white breasts). Tufted Puffins also nest on rocky islands by building burrows, and both parents construct the nest, incubate the egg, and care for the brood of one chick. Their diet includes fish, marine invertebrates, and even algae. Kittiwakes will pirate food from Tufted Puffins returning to their nest to feed their young.
Golden Eagle
Golden Eagles are typically seen in mountainous areas. They are commonly seen in Denali National Park and they can also be spotted in the Kenai Mountains. When attempting to distinguish between the Golden Eagle and the Bald Eagle, first consider the habitat where you have spotted it, and then look for the distinguishing plumage. Adult eagles are easier to distinguish, look for a golden head and dark tail as opposed to a white head and tail. When looking at immature birds, it is more difficult. In Golden Eagles, look for two distinct, small white patches on the underside of the wing, as opposed to an immature Bald Eagle, which has a mottled white and dark underside on its breast and wings. Golden Eagles nest on cliffs or sometimes trees, often alternating between two or three nests from year to year. They are monogamous (long0term pair bond), both male and female build the nest, and the female does most of incubation, while the male captures more food for the female and the young. The clutch size is two on average, but it ranges from one to four young. Larger siblings often kills the smaller siblings. Golden Eagles feed upon mammals (arctic ground squirrels most commonly in Denali), birds, and some insects.
Bald Eagle
Bald Eagles are commonly sighted on the Kenai Peninsula and in other areas of Alaska along Coasts, rivers, and lakes. Rarely, if ever, are they spotted in Denali. See the description for Golden Eagle above for hints to distinguish Bald Eagles from Golden Eagles. They are monogamo9s (long-term pair bond), and both parents take part in nest building, incubation, and caring for young. Perennial nests are placed in forks of tall trees (in Alaska, mostly in large cottonwood trees or Sitka spruce) or on a cliff. Nests range in size from a minimal stick platform to a massive structure of sticks, deeply lined with fine material. Young hatch asynchronously and the younger often dies. Their diet consists of fish, especially salmon up to fifteen pounds and often dead (or dying), mammals, waterfowl and seabirds, and carrion. Concentrations of 3000 -. 4000 occur on the Chilkat River near Haines, Alaska during the silver salmon run (from Nov. - Jan.). Immature Bald Eagles often pirate from other bird species, and sometimes each other.
Northern Harrier
Northern Harriers are most often sighted in Denali, but they may be spotted on the Kenai Peninsula as well. Their breeding habitat includes sloughs, marshes, and wet meadows. Northern Harrier nests are flimsy platforms placed on elevated ground or in thick, brushy vegetation. They are usually monogamous, but in areas of high vole populations, polygamy also occurs (in order to maximize reproduction). They female builds the nest with some help from the male, the female carries out incubation and both parents take part in the raising of the young. Northern Harries have curved, sound-reflecting facial ruff like owls which, combined with low flight (under seven feet), enables the location of prey by sound. Their diet is based primarily on voles and other small mammals, but also includes birds and carrion.
Gyrfalcon
Gyrfalcons breed in arctic tundra with rocky outcrops and cliffs, in open coniferous forest, or on rocky seacoasts. Their nests often-abandoned raven or raptor nests, are marked by excrement, food pellets, and debris. Gyrfalcons feed primarily upon ptarmigan, but also include grouse, waterfowl, shorebirds, seabirds, and small mammals in their diet. They can be seen “contour hugging,” flying fast and low to surprise their prey. Gyrfalcon population levels vary with ptarmigan abundance, and will skip breeding when prey is scarce. The female does most or all of the incubation, while the male provides all of the food through incubation and the early nesting period.
Spruce Grouse
Spruce Grouse breed in mature, old growth conifer forest, and remain in Alaska year-round. Their nests are shallow depressions lined with conifer needles, dry leaves, grass, and a few feathers; the nests are often hidden under the branches of a fallen tree or beside a log. The female builds the nest, incubates, and care for young. Females perform distraction displays to protect young. Spruce Grouse feed on spruce needles, berries, seeds, and insects, and in winter, their diet shifts exclusively to feeding on needles. Their cryptic coloration can make them nearly invisible (when they are flushed by hikers, the hikers are often scared out of their wits!).
White-tailed Ptarmigan
The White-tailed ptarmigan is usually found in the tundra above tree line, and often on high, rocky slopes. It can be distinguished from other Ptarmigan species by its white tail, which remains white in all seasons. The female builds the nest, incubates 4-8 eggs, and cares for young. The male sometimes stays with the female through hatching, but usually leaves at the onset of incubation. Nesting begins when the female attains her cryptic plumage and the female eats molted white feathers to reduce conspicuousness of nest. Their diet consists of buds, leaves, and flowers of willows, birches, and alders; in summer insects are also fed upon. In winter, White-tailed Ptarmigans move to lower elevations.
Rock Ptarmigan
The Rock Ptarmigan may be spotted in Denali and it is similar in appearance to the willow Ptarmigan. The male Rock Ptarmigan does not possess the reddish colors to its summer plumage like the male Willow Ptarmigan. To distinguish females, look at the bill size and shape; the Rock Ptarmigan has a smaller and more slender bill than does the Willow Ptarmigan. The female makes a nest in a shallow depression lined it grass, moss, and feathers. Rock Ptarmigans are monogamous and the female incubates 6-9 eggs and cares for the nesting. The male sometimes remains with the female through hatching, but usually leaves at the onset of incubation. Their diet includes leaves, flower buds, seeds, insects, and berries.
Willow Ptarmigan
The Willow Ptarmigan (the Alaska state bird) is found in lower elevations of tundra, especially in shrubby areas of Denali National Park. Nests are shallow depressions in exposed tundra, lined with leaves, grass, and a few feathers. The Willow Ptarmigan is monogamous (with some polygamy going on as well). The female builds the nest and incubates 5-14 eggs. The male assists in raising young once they hatch, contributing more to rearing and survival o offspring than any other grouse species. Their diet includes leave, flower bud, and twigs of willows, birches, and alders, seeds, and berries, insects, and spiders during the summer.
Belted Kingfisher
Belted Kingfishers are commonly seen along the Kenai River and they can be found near fresh and marine watercourses. They are often seen perching near or above water. They are conspicuous in flight, often giving a loud, distinctive rattling call as they fly. Nest cavities are built in vertical banks near water. The tunnels are usually 3-6’ in length, but may be as long as 15’. Both parents build the nest cavity, incubate, and feed young. They are possibly monogamous, but breeding biology is not well known. Kingfishers feed, upon fish, aquatic invertebrates, and occasionally birds, mice, and berries. Belted Kingfishers winter in South America.
Three-toed Woodpecker
The Three-toed Woodpecker is one of Alaska’s year-round residents. It prefers spruce forest or conifer-deciduous forest for nesting, especially in areas near burns. Loose nesting colonies are sometimes formed in areas of high food abundance. Its diet is based primarily on woodworking beetles (greater than seventy-five percent), but also includes other insects and tree sap. In Colorado, it has been found that the abundance of Three-toed Woodpeckers correlates to the abundance of spruce bark beetles (it is unknown by the editor if this has been studied in Alaska). Three-toed Woodpeckers are monogamous, and both parents build the nest cavity, incubate, and care for young.
Black-backed Woodpecker
The Black-Jacked Woodpecker is closely related and looks similar to the Three- toed Woodpecker. The best way to distinguish between the two species is to look for a wide white stripe that runs down the back of the Three-toed Woodpecker, whereas as its name implies, the Black-backed Woodpecker has a completely black back. The Black-backed Woodpecker is also a year-round resident in Alaska, and it prefers conifer forest, especially windfall and burned areas with standing dead trees, for nesting. Its diet is composed mostly of wood-boring beetle larvae, ants, and some fruit, mast, and cambium; it prefers to forage on trees with easily peeled bark (i.e. spruce trees). B lack- backed Woodpeckers are monogamous, and both parents build the nest, incubate, and care for young, but much of its breeding biology is not well known.
Tree Swallow
Tree Swallows are often seen at the A.W.A. Riverside Camp, along the Kenai River Valley, and at Skilak Lake. To distinguish these birds from Violet-green Swallows., first look for a blue-green coloration on the back; then look to see that the white cheek patch does not extend above the eye (as it does in Violet-green Swallows). These birds migrate to Alaska in order to breed, and they winter in Central America. Typically they leave Alaska by early to mid August. Tree Swallows use tree cavities or nest boxes for nesting. They are generally monogamous, but polygamy occurs in times of high food abundance. The female constructs the nest (with some help from the male), and incubates the young; both parents help feed chicks. Young hatch asynchronously. Tree Swallows are aerial foragers, usually foraging for insects on the wing, but sometimes ground-glean and feed on berries as well.
Violet-green Swallow
Violet-green Swallows are also commonly seen around the Riverside Camp, at Denali Backcountry Lodge, the Kenai River Valley, and Skilak Lake. Violet-green Swallows have green backs and the males possess a violet patch on the back just above the tail. The white cheek patch extends above the eye. They occasionally flock with Tree Swallows, but will vigorously defend the area around their nest, cavities to keep other cavity-nesting swallow species away; Watch for this behavior in the spring around camp. They winter in southern U.S. and Central America. , They are aerial foragers, rarely taking insects on the ground. Violet-green Swallows are monogamous; the female builds the nest (possibly with some help from the male, but this is not well studied), incubates the eggs, and does most of the feeding of the young.
Bank Swallow
We see Bank Swallows along the Kenai River and other areas where road cuts or stream banks provide nesting habitat. These birds have brown backs and white breasts with a thin brown band across it. Bank swallows are colonial nesters, their burrows are generally 1’-3’ long, and the male and female typically construct them, but they sometimes utilize abandoned Kingfisher burrows. They are monogamous, and both male and female incubate the eggs and care for the young. Their diet consists almost entirely of insects. Colonial nesting helps to reduce predation by group mobbing of predators. Colonies also serve as “information centers,” for -food finding, as birds follow each other to patchy food resources.
Black-billed Magpie
Black-billed Magpies are commonly seen on the Kenai Peninsula and in Denali National Park. These birds reside in Alaska through out the year. Their preferred breeding habitat includes open country with scattered trees, brushy areas, riparian, and open woodland. Black-billed Magpies are gregarious, nesting in small colonies with scattered nests. The nest they construct is large and conspicuous, with a bulky dome covering the entire structure (resembling witch’s broom, or possibly converted from witch’s broom), and they occasionally reuse or build on top of the original nest in following years. They are monogamous (long-term pair bond): both the male and female build the nest, the female incubates, the male feeds the female while she is on the nest and both parents feed young. Fledglings are fed, at least partly, for up to seven weeks. Apparently the AWA Riverside Camp is .the location of a Black-billed Magpie colony; beware of noisy fledglings early in the morning! Black-billed Magpies are omnivorous: 85% insects, carrion, invertebrates; 15% fruit and seeds. Nestlings are fed on 95% animal food.
Common Raven
The Common Raven is found in a wide variety of habitats throughout Alaska, and remains in Alaska year-round. Ravens are monogamous (long-term pair bond), and they tend to utilize a perennial nest that is built in a deciduous tree, on a manmade structure, or on a cliff. They never retrieve nesting material that falls to the ground, so large accumulations of sticks and debris may occur below nests. The female and male build the nest, the female incubates eggs and the male provides food for her and both parents feed their clutch of 4 -6 young. Common Ravens are omnivorous, and their diet is made up mostly of carrion, but also small vertebrates, bird eggs and nestlings (esp. seabird colonies), insects, garbage, seeds, and fruit. Ravens often cache their food and are occasionally known to hunt cooperatively in groups. The Common Raven has a very important role in Native American culture.
American Dipper
American Dippers are year-round residents in Alaska, and they are often viewed near rivers and swift mountain streams. American Dippers are gray and are commonly seen at the waters edge almost constantly “bobbing” up and down. Their nests are hut or oven-like and are found on cliff faces among ‘moss and ferns, behind waterfalls, or on a mid-stream rock. Dippers usually form monogamous pair bonds, but they are sometimes polygamous as well. The female builds the nest, incubates the eggs, and cares for the clutch of 4 - 5 young (with some help from the male). The American Dipper’s diet consists mainly of fish and aquatic invertebrates: when foraging underwater, they “fly,” and walk along the bottom to depths of twenty feet.
Arctic Warbler
Arctic Warblers can be seen in Denali National Park along Igloo Creek, west of the Toklt River, and in Kantishna. This species originated in Asia and then established itself in Alaska following the last great ice Age. In the fall, the entire.. Alaskan population returns to Asia via the Bering Strait. They then fly south With the Asian population to their wintering grounds in southern China, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Borneo. Arctic Warblers are late spring migrants and are not seen consistently until mid-June. The females build nests that are domed or oven shaped, with an opening on one side. The nests are located on he ground. Much of their breeding biology is still unknown, but the parents raise a brood of 6 - 7 young. They feed on insects, especially mosquitoes These birds glean foliage, and are often seen in, willow thickets.
Northern Wheater
The Northern Wheater is found in Denali National Park, and good locations to look for them are upper Tattler Creek, Polychrome Pass, Stony Creek, and either side of Eielson Visitor Center. This species established itself in Alaska after the last great Ice Age. In the fall, these birds migrate west to Siberia and then continue on to their wintering grounds in Africa, Arabia, India, Mongolia, and China. Northern Wheaters are monogamous, and both the male and female construct a nest in a burrow under a, rock or use an abandoned rodent burrow. The nest is a loose collection of grasses, moss, hair, etc. Both the parents incubate and care for the clutch of 3-8 young. Northern Wheaters feed on insects, fruit, and seeds. After the young have fledged, the male and female split up the young and each parent continues to feed their respective group of young for an additional 10 - 11 days.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet
The Ruby-crowned Kinglet is the infamous little bird that can be heard singing, “Are you ready? Are you ready? Are you ready yet?” The male Ruby-crowned Kinglet can be heard singing this song almost relentlessly in the spring as it hops about the top of spruce trees. These birds breed in Alaska and winter in Central America. They are monogamous, the female incubates the eggs and then both parents feed their clutch of 7 - 9 young. Some aspects of their breeding biology are not well known. Their diet consists mostly of insects, but also includes spiders, tree sap, seeds, and berries.
Sources and Suggested Readings:
Robert H. Armstrong. The Birds of Alaska. 1995. Alaska Northwest Books.
Bird lists for the Chugach National Forest, Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, and Denali National Park.
Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye. The Birder’s Handbook. 1988. Simon and Schuster, Fireside.
Kenneth Kertal and Alan Seegert. Denali National Park Bird Finding Guide. 1994. Alaska Natural History Association.
Roger Tory Peterson. Peterson’s Guide to Western Birds. 1990. Houghton Mifflin Company.
Shirley L. Scott (Editor). The. Field Guide to the Birds of North America. 1987. National Geographic Society.
Contributing Author:
Scott Thomas
